Afghanistan

The Minaret of Jam stands sixty-five meters tall in a deep rugged valley at the juncture of the Hari and Jam rivers, approximately one hundred kilometers east of Herat. It was built by Ghurid sultan Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad bin Sam (1163-1203). The foundation plaque above the base on the north side has been read differently by Pinder-Wilson and by Sourdel-Thomine as 1194/95 and 1174/75. The earlier date supports the prevailing argument that the minaret was erected alone to commemorate the Ghurid conquest of Ghazna in 1173. Remains of a settlement on the northern bank of Hari and surrounding hillsides, and pottery fragments collected in the area suggest that the site may be the lost Ghurid capital of Firuzkuh destroyed by Genghis Khan in 1222. Remains of a fort or castle are seen on a hilltop to the east of the minaret. Made entirely of fired brick, the minaret is composed of a two-tier cylindrical body raised seven meters on an octagonal base. Two spiral staircases, accessed from a single doorway above the ground, provide access to two balconies atop the lower shaft and midway up the upper shaft, visiting six vaulted chambers located in between. Only the supports have remained of the brick balconies. The minaret is capped at sixty-five meters with a cupola (now damaged) raised on six open archways. The two towers of the minaret shaft differ structurally. The broad lower shaft is made of thick walls enveloping two spiral staircases at center; it rises to a height of thirty-eight meters, with an exterior diameter diminishing from 9.7 meters at the base to 6 meters at top. The narrow upper shaft, by contrast, has a central void spanned by six cross-vaults resting on four internal buttresses. The stairs are here channeled into the narrow spaces between the walls and the buttresses. The rich decoration of the minaret, executed with tiles and terracotta in high relief, has largely survived and was analyzed in detail by Sourdel-Thomine. The upper shaft features three epigraphic bands -- one below the cupola and two below the second balcony -- that contain the shahada, Quranic verses from Sura al-Saff and the name of Ghiyath al-Din, respectively. The two lower bands are separated by a thick decorative band featuring a symbolic vase motif found in the Ghazna palace of Mas'ud III and on coins issued at Firuzkuh. The lower shaft is covered entirely with eight vertical tile panels that lead up to a thick epigraphic band below the first balcony. Each panel here features a braid of geometric shapes framed with a continuous kufic inscription (Sura Maryam, Quran 19) and filled in with interlacing geometric patterns. The braid motif on the east and west facing panels, which mark the original entrance and the direction of qibla, are distinguished with the use of eight-pointed stars. The dedicatory inscription above the panels includes the name and celebratory titles of Ghiyath al-Din, written in a floriated kufic script highlighted with turquoise glazed tiles. It is framed with tile bands of varying width, including series of circles and roundels fitted with floral inserts. A cursive inscription, placed halfway up on the eastern panel, gives the name of the architect, 'Ali ibn Ibrahim of Nishapur. Fragments remaining of the fifth epigraphic band on the base of the minaret show that it also contained titles of the Ghurid sultan in a knotted kufic script. Stabilization efforts for the Jam Minaret began in the 1960s following a survey by the Instituto Italiano per il Media ed Estremo Oriente (ISMEO) that warned of collapse due to soil erosion at the minaret base. A temporary dam was built of stone and wood in 1963-64, and followed by the construction of a gabion wall by UNESCO in 1978. Preservation efforts halted by the civil war were resumed in 1999 and in 2001 with the construction of additional walls and gabions along the Jam and Hari rivers. The minaret and the surrounding archaeological site were amended to the UNESCO list of World Heritage in Danger in 2002. Illegal excavations since 2001 have compromised the historical integrity of the archaeological site. Sources: "Jam". Website of Society for the Preservation of Afghanistan's Cultural Heritage (SPACH). <a href="http://spach.info/ephotosghor.htm" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">http://spach.info/ephotosghor.htm</a> [Accessed November 1, 2005; inaccessible October 3, 2013] "Minar-e Jam". World Monuments Fund Panographies. <a href="http://www.world-heritage-tour.org/asia/af/jam/overview.html" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">http://www.world-heritage-tour.org/asia/af/jam/overview.html</a>. [Accessed November 1, 2005; inaccessible October 3, 2013] UNESCO. "Minaret and Archaeological Remains of Jam." Accessed October 3, 2013. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/211 Bruno, Andrea. "The Minaret of Jam." World Heritage Review, 4-15. Madrid: San Marcos, 2003. Flood, Finbarr Barry. 2005. "[Review of] Le Minaret Ghouride de Jam: Un Chef d'Oeuvre du XIIe Siècle." In Art Bulletin v. 87, no. 3, 536-543. Available online on <a href="http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0422/is_3_87/ai_n15795066/print" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Findarticles.com</a>. [Accessed July 25, 2006; inaccessible October 3, 2013] Jawed, Sayed. 2001. "Protection for Jam Minaret: A Gabion Wall along the Hari River." SPACH Newsletter, Issue 7, 12. <a href="http://www.spach.info/documentation/newsletters/issue%207.%20July%202001.pdf" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">http://www.spach.info/documentation/newsletters/</a><a href="http://www.spach.info/documentation/newsletters/issue%207.%20July%202001.pdf" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">issue%207.%20July%202001.pdf</a> [Accessed October 21, 2005; inaccessible October 3, 2013] Knobloch, Edgar. "The Ghorids." In The Architecture and Archaeology of Afghanistan, 330-55. UK: Tempus Publishing, 2002. Manhart, Christian. 2004. UNESCO's Mandate and Recent Activities for the Rehabilitation of Afghanistan's Cultural Heritage. International Review of the Red Cross no. 854, v. 86, 406-308. <a href="http://www.icrc.org/Web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/htmlall/634JK5/$File/irrc_854_Manhart.pdf" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">http://www.icrc.org/Web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/</a><a href="http://www.icrc.org/Web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/htmlall/634JK5/$File/irrc_854_Manhart.pdf" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">htmlall/634JK5/$File/irrc_854_Manhart.pdf</a>. [Accessed October 21, 2005; inaccessible October 3, 2013] Menon, A., C.G. Lai, and G. Macchi. "Seismic Hazard Assessment of the Historical Site of Jam in Afghanistan and Stability Analysis of the Minaret." Journal of Earthquake Engineering 8, Sp. Iss.1. (2004): 251-294. Pinder-Wilson, Ralph. "Ghaznavid and Ghurid Minarets." Iran: Journal of the British Institute of Persian Studies 39 (2001): 155-186. Poldelco, Grant. "Afghanistan: Race to Preserve Historic Minarets of Herat, Jam." Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. 2005. Accessed October 3, 2013. http://www.rferl.org/content/article/1059997.html Sourdel-Thomine, Janine. Le Minaret Ghouride de Jam: Un Chef d'Oeuvre du XIIe Siècle. Paris: Diffusion de Boccard, 2004. Stewart, Rory. "The Looting of Turquoise Mountain." The New York Times. August 25, 2002. Accessed October 3, 2013. http://www.e-ariana.com/ariana/eariana.nsf/allDocsArticles/AAD2B0703566859B87256C21000A150D?OpenDocument Thomas, David. 2004. "Looting, Heritage Management and Archaeological Strategies at Jam, Afghanistan." Culture Without Context: the Newsletter of the Illicit Antiquities Research Centre, Iss. 14, Internet Edition. <a href="http://www.mcdonald.cam.ac.uk/IARC/cwoc/issue14/afghanistan.htm" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">http://www.mcdonald.cam.ac.uk/IARC/cwoc/issue14/afghanistan.htm</a>. [Accessed November 1, 2005; inaccessible October 3, 2013]

Manar-i Ghiyas al-Din

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Minaret of Jam

The Masjid-i Jami of Herat, the city's first congregational mosque, was built on the site of two smaller Ghaznavid mosques that were destroyed by earthquake and fire. The present mosque was begun by Ghurid ruler Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad b. Sam (1162-1202) in 1200 (597 AH), and continued after his death by his brother and successor Shihab al-Din. This is confirmed both by an inscription on the eastern Ghurid portal uncovered in 1964 during a restoration, and by the sixteenth century Timurid historian Khwandamir in his Khulasat al-Akhbar. It is debated whether this mosque was originally sited at the city center, although it was probably built in the northwest quarter of the medieval city, within the original walls. According to Lisa Golombek, Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad respected the original westerly orientation that reflected its Hanafite tradition, although his Shafi'ite tradition would have favored a southern orientation of the qibla. In the thirteenth century, Chingiz Khan pillaged the province and the building fell into ruin. Rebuilding and renovation programs were undertaken by the Kart rulers in 1306 (706 AH) and again after a devastating earthquake in 1364. After 1397, the Timurid rulers redirected Herat's growth towards the North. This suburbanization and the building of a new Friday mosque in Gawhar Shad's Musalla marked the end of the Masjid-i Jami's patronage by a monarchy. Repairs between 1404 and 1446 (807 - 850 AH) were completed by Jalal al-Din Firuzshah, one of the most prominent amirs of Shah Rukh bin Timur (1405-1444). According to Richard N. Frye, the mosque was then rebuilt by Mir Ali Shir Navai -- a prominent poet and minister of Sultan Husain Baiqara (1469-1506) -- in two years beginning in 1498 (903 AH), although Isfizari states that the decorations alone were completed over the course of five years. By the mid-twentieth century, little remained of the Timurid mosque, at which time, the structure was reconstructed and extended as part of a larger urban project. The plan for the new mosque corrects the irregularities of the original mosque layout and reconstructs elements (like the mausoleum), which were entirely lost by the 1940s. The new mosque is rectangular with four deeply vaulted iwans and domed hypostyle halls around a courtyard, with a reconstruction of the mausoleum of Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad bin Sam located behind the northern iwan. The main portal faces east. There are five secondary entrances along the north and east walls, including the last remaining Ghurid portal at the southeastern corner of the mosque complex. The exterior and courtyard walls are all richly decorated with pink bricks covered with plaster and predominantly blue tilework with vegetal and floral motifs. The exterior was entirely and heavily restored prior to 1970. The eastern façade of the Masjid-i Jami is contemporary. The symmetrically arranged entry elevation has a pishtaq flanked on either side by bi-level arched niches, minarets, and long walls with blind arches. The pishtaq and the arched niches have complex ribbed vaults. To the left of the entrance is the original completion plaque composed in Kufic style that announces the date of construction and gives praise to the donor. At the southernmost edge of this façade, behind the screen wall, is a portal from the Ghurid mosque. Its double-arched niche is crowned with a brick squinch-net vault. It has been lightly restored. The doorway is flanked with two engaged columns. The surfaces of the columns and the spandrels of the portal arch are covered with geometric carvings in pink stone. On either side of the doorway are panels of kufic inscriptions carved in stone and highlighted with blue tiles. The eastern portal iwan is comprised of a half-dome chamber and muqarnas vaulting. This portal leads to the courtyard through a series of three small vestibules. The mosque courtyard is an expansive paved surface, measuring approximately 121 meters by 174 meters; it is lined with single storey arcades with four centered iwans. These iwans are not domed, but instead have deeply recessed arches. In the southeast corner of the courtyard is the Kartid period cauldron, which was made in 1375 and is still used for distributing fruit-flavored syrup (sharbat). There is a small standing mihrab (namazgah) in the courtyard. The sanctuary iwan to the west is the largest and deepest. The eastern portal iwan is next in size, and the two lateral iwans are smallest. The two minarets at the corners of the sanctuary pishtaq underline the significance of this mass, which contains a mihrab niche on its western wall. Surrounding the courtyard on all four sides are domed or vaulted hypostyle prayer halls. The halls are seven bays deep on the west, eight bays deep on the east and five bays deep on the north and south sides of the courtyard. Accessed through the courtyard arcade, the bays are enclosed in certain sections to create rooms or corridors. Typical of monuments in Herat, where timber and stone were unavailable, the mosque was built of mud-bricks covered in plaster. Originally a large square structure, the tomb of Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad bin Sam to the north of the courtyard was rebuilt as an octagonal hall with circular niches on the interior walls. It is entered through a three-sided projection on the northern mosque wall, which is carved with three deep niches and crowned with two minarets. Overall, the mosque's multiple reconstructions and restoration programs leave little to authenticate as original. Twentieth century programs, most notably the 1945 program mentioned by Richard Frye, have expanded the northeastern section of the mosque from a length of approximately 101 meters to 121 meters. The exterior was redecorated with tiles and carved stone, and sections of the courtyard arcade were glazed. The reflecting pool at the center of the courtyard and the single tree at its northwest corner were also removed during these restorations. Sources: Allen, Terry. Timurid Herat. Wiesbaden: Reichert, 1983. Chirvani, A. S. Melikian. "Eastern Iranian Architecture: Apropos of the Ghurid Parts of the Great Mosque of Herat." Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London 33-2 (1970): 322-27. Frye, Richard N. "Two Timurid Monuments in Herat." Separatum Artibus Asiae XI/3 (1948): 206-12. Gaube, Heinz. Iranian Cities. New York: New York University Press, 1979. Golombek, Lisa. "The Resilience of the Friday Mosque: The Case of Herat." Muqarnas: An Annual on Islamic Art and Architecture (New Haven: Yale University Press) I (1983): 95-102. Dupree, Nancy Hatch. "Herat". An Historical Guide To Afghanistan, Internet Edition. <a href="http://www.zharov.com/dupree/chapter13.html" target="_blank">http://www.zharov.com/dupree/chapter13.html</a>. [Accessed August 19, 2005; inaccessible October 2, 2013.&nbsp;Text now available at&nbsp;<a href="https://archive.org/details/azu_acku_ds351_d87_1977">https://archive.org/details/azu_acku_ds351_d87_1977</a>] Hillenbrand, Robert. "The Ghurid Tomb at Herat." In Cairo to Kabul: Afghan and Islamic Studies, edited by Ball Warwich and Leonard Harrow, 123-43. London: Melisende, 2002. Stuckert, R. "Der Baubestand der Masjid al-Jami in Herat 1942/3." Afghanistan Journal VII/1 (1980): 3-5. "Masjid-e Jami". Website of Society for the Preservation of Afghanistan's Cultural Heritage (SPACH). <a href="http://spach.info/ephotosheratmasjidejami.htm" target="_blank">http://spach.info/ephotosheratmasjidejami.htm</a>. [Accessed August 19, 2005; inaccessible October 2, 2013]

Masjid-i Jami'

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IMG10655

The two free-standing domed structures are located on a plateau outside of Chisht-i Sharif, a twelfth-century religious center that gave its name to the Chishtiyya order of Sufism. Inscriptions on both structures name Ghurid sultan Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad ibn Sam as their patron. Their original function is unknown, and speculations have ranged. Given their form and situation in a present-day graveyard, scholars originally believed them to be tombs. Another theory is that they belonged to a mosque-madrasa complex. The two structures are often differentiated as the "Eastern Mausoleum" and "Western Mausoleum," but the taller "Eastern" structure stands to the northeast of the more intact "Western" one. For the purposes of this essay, they are described in an agnostic manner as the "Western Dome" and the "Eastern Dome."<div> </div><div> The Western Dome The shorter and more intact structure to the west is a square domed chamber entered from arched doorways centered on each façade. The southern entrance was distinguished with a portal screen, of which only small sections have remained on either side of the doorway. The fragments include a door frame composed of three bands of tile reliefs -- two braided bands around a narrow band of floral arabesques -- separated by rows of bricks. Shallow niches topped with a narrow pointed arch and a broad horse-shoe arch flank the doorway to the left and right, respectively. Bordered by embedded colonettes, the two niches are decorated with geometric tile reliefs and bands Kufic inscriptions made of molded brick. The corners of the brick chamber have largely eroded on the exterior, with a collapsed squinch exposing the interior at the southwest corner. The dome of the Western Mausoleum is supported by four grand arches embedded into the walls that rest on heavy columns set into the corners. Transition to the dome is achieved through an octagonal drum with squinches at the corners. Each dome arch is framed with a band of tile Quranic inscription composed in kufic script, topped with floral arabesques. The construction date of 1167 (562 A.H.) is marked along the eastern arch. A fifth band enveloping the interior below the arch springers includes the title "Shams al-Dunya wa'l-Din," an earlier epithet of Muhammad ibn Sam. The Eastern Dome The walls of the taller structure have largely eroded over time; the dome and the northern arch, seen in photographs as late as the 1970s, have since collapsed. As built, the monument consisted of two grand archways (south, north) and two blind walls (east, west) supporting a dome with an oculus. An octagonal drum with corner squinches provided the transition to the dome. Inside, the western wall has a simple mihrab niche with a semi-dome set inside a tall rectangular frame and blind niches with horseshoe arches adorn the upper sections of the east and west walls. Soffits of the southern and northern archways were decorated with contrasting tile reliefs featuring floral arabesques and braided geometric reliefs, respectively; the northern arch has not survived. Two portal fragments flanking the southern archway show parts of the dedicatory inscription, which was made of floral ornaments and triangular tiles placed in high and low relief between molded Kufic letters. Use of the word "great sultan" here with reference to Muhammad ibn Sam has led Sheila Blair to suggest a later date for this structure, which confirms the reading by Ralph Pinder-Wilson of the date 1194 (590 A.H.) on an octagonal plinth (since lost) above the north entrance. Both monuments are in urgent need of stabilization and restoration. Sources: Society for the Preservation of Afghanistan's Cultural Heritage. Herat Province, Chisht-e Sharif. <a href="http://spach.info/ephotosheratchist-esharif.htm" target="_blank">http://spach.info/ephotosheratchist-esharif.htm</a>. [Accessed July 18, 2006; inaccessible October 4, 2013] Blair, Sheila S. "The Madrasa at Zuzan: Islamic Architecture in Eastern Iran on the Eve of the Mongol Invasions." Muqarnas III (1985): 75-91. Dupree, Nancy Hatch. "Obey and Chisht-i-Sharif." In&nbsp;An Historical Guide to Afghanistan. Kabul, 1970. Available online at&nbsp;<a href="https://archive.org/details/azu_acku_ds351_d87_1977">https://archive.org/details/azu_acku_ds351_d87_1977</a> Pinder-Wilson, Ralph. "Ghaznavid and Ghurid Architecture and Epigraphy." In The Art of the Saljuqs in Iran and Anatolia: Proceedings of a Symposium Held in Edinburgh in 1982, edited by R. Hillenbrand. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers, 1994.</div>

Gumbad-i Chisht-i Sharif

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Exterior view. Chisht-i Sharif. Western Mausoleum. Eastern Mausoluem. Facade. Portal Screen. Ruins. Herat Province. Afghanistan.

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<h2>ARCHNET FAQ</h2>1. Will ARCHNET work on my device?Archnet works well on the most recent version of any major browser (Chrome, Firefox, Safari, Edge), either on a mobile device or computer. It may work on older or less common browsers as well. If Archnet fails to work properly on your machine, please let us know about your experience by clicking the blue feedback button at bottom right!2. Will my URLs from earlier versions of Archnet still work?Yes, if they are from the version launched in January 2013. As of October 12, 2021, all URLs from the old Archnet have been redirected to ARCHNET.&nbsp;&nbsp;3. How do I download a/n:&nbsp;<ul><li>image - Select the image you want to download from search results, a site or an authority. The image will open in your browser.&nbsp;Right click to download.&nbsp;For larger, high-resolution copies, see contact us using archnet@mit.edu.&nbsp;</li><li>publication - Open the page for the publication in your browser and click the download button. Reprinting Archnet publications is permissible only for personal use.&nbsp;Please contact us for any other requests.&nbsp;</li><li>site descriptions and metadata - Site descriptions and metadata can be used for any nonprofit or educational organization with appropriate attribution to the authors and Archnet.&nbsp;</li><li>video - Currently video downloads are not possible. If you'd like to use an Archnet video, please contact <a href="mailto:archnet@mit.edu" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">archnet@mit.edu</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</li></ul>See our <a href="https://www.archnet.org/pages/terms" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Terms of Use</a> for information on how you can use Archnnet material.4. Can I contribute material to Archnet?&nbsp;Yes!&nbsp;See our <a href="https://www.archnet.org/pages/contribute" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Contribute</a> page for more information.&nbsp;Calls for specific contributions are also also shared in our social media and on the <a href="https://libraries.mit.edu/akdc/category/contributors/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">web site of the Aga Khan Documentation Center at MIT</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;5. What happened to the Archnet Timeline?&nbsp;Timeline has migrated into the ARCHNET NEXT Collections page&nbsp;<a href="https://www.archnet.org/collections/collection_type/3/1" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">as a category</a>. These collections provide short introductions for each period, often offering lists of additional resources at the end of the entry. Only the timeline graphic listing the periods along a chronological axis has not migrated.6. My question isn't here.&nbsp;How can I get help?&nbsp;If your issue is with using Archnet, use the blue Feedback button to alert us to your issue. This will allow you to include a screenshot or recording. Please, also, feel free to contact us at <a href="mailto:archnet@mit.edu" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">archnet@mit.edu</a>We are currently developing the help section of ARCHNET NEXT. In the meantime, please use the blue Feedback button in ARCHNET NEXT to send us feedback or other questions. Contact us at <a href="mailto:archnet@mit.edu" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">archnet@mit.edu</a>.&nbsp;

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Welcome to ARCHNET, an open access, interdisciplinary, intellectual resource focused on the built environment of Muslim societies.Focused on the built environment of Islamic civilizations past and present, we seek to:<ul><li>Facilitate excellence in scholarship and professional work by&nbsp;providing reliable information and ready access&nbsp;to vetted, high-quality textual and multimedia resources&nbsp;focused on architecture, urbanism, environmental and landscape design,&nbsp;heritage&nbsp;conservation, economic and environmental sustainability, community development and resilience in the face of rapid change, and related topics.</li><li>Enable teaching and learning in these domains by providing educators with reliable, effective pedagogical material and teaching aids.&nbsp;</li><li>Serve as a platform through which scholars, practitioners, and institutions can bring their work to new global audiences.&nbsp;</li><li>Promote intercultural understanding and dialogue through reliable, high-quality, peer-reviewed material on the diversity of and pluralism within Muslim societies and the interaction between Islamic and other religious, cultural, and philosophical traditions as it relates to architecture and urbanism.</li><li>Enable easy access to a wide variety of resources via a custom-built, web-based, mobile-friendly platform optimized to minimize financial, infrastructural, linguistic, and other barriers to access.&nbsp;&nbsp;</li></ul>Launched in 2002 after several years of development, ARCHNET is a pioneering digital resource that has proven a reliable authority on the built environment of Muslim societies, past and present.&nbsp;ARCHNET is a partnership between the <a href="https://www.archnet.org/collections/1342" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Aga Khan Documentation Center, MIT Libraries</a> (AKDC@MIT) and the <a href="https://www.archnet.org/authorities/1903" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Aga Khan Trust for Culture</a> (AKTC), with support from the <a href="https://www.archnet.org/collections/50" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture</a> at Harvard and MIT.&nbsp;ARCHNET is developed and maintained by <a href="https://www.performantsoftware.com/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Performant Software Solutions</a>.

Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad b. Sam (r. 1163-1203)
Afghanistan

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Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad b. Sam (r. 1163-1203)

Associated Sites

Additional Names