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About

Spain

An inscription on the palace's foundation stone, today located in the city's archaeological museum, explains that the Alcazaba of Merida was constructed on an earlier Roman site in the year 835 by the governor 'Abd Allah ibn Kulaib, for the Emir, 'Abd ar-Rahman ibn al-Hakam. This stronghold overlooks the Guadiana River and the adjacent Roman bridge. It contributed to safeguarding the region as it was one in a series of fortresses constructed along the Christian border with Islamic southern Spain. Built using Roman and Visigothic masonry, the fortification measures approximately 130 square meters and is buttressed by four rectangular corner bastions with towers scattered between them on each side, usually symmetrically. The main entrance, featuring horseshoe arches, opens on the north side and proceeds into a small courtyard that leads both into the city and the inner citadel. Once castellated, the walls extend 2.7 meters thick and introduce the earliest example in Spain of an albarrani, a tower that extends from the palace to connect with a bridge. Dating to the same period as the walls, a large cistern, or aljibe, provided a direct source of water from the river into the fortress by means of a vaulted stone corridor with Visigothic pilasters. Two staircases lead deep into the cistern's pool for retrieving water. Overall, the Alcazaba is reminiscent of Syrian building technique. While it had been bequeathed to the Order of Santiago under succeeding Christian rule, this fortress today serves as a museum. Sources: Creswell, K. A. C.1989. A Short Account of Early Muslim Architecture. Rev. ed. Allan, James W. Aldershot: Scolar Press, 302-303. Goodwin, Godfrey. 1990. Islamic Spain. London: Penguin Group, 125-126. Prince, Danforth and Porter, Darwin. 2003. Frommer's Spain 2003. New York: Wiley Publishing, Inc., 236-7. Michell, George. ed. 1978. Architecture of the Islamic World; Its History and Social Meaning. London: Thames &amp; Hudson, 214.

Alcazaba of Merida

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digital photograph

Alcazaba de Merida

Morocco

Originally a funduq or caravanserai built ca. 1894 by Ernest Waller's company Rentistica, and now a market.

Founduq Walili

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glass plate negative

Funduq Waller 5-49

Iran

Shah Rukh Khanqah

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IMG09604

Syria

Qala’a Dimashq is a palace and fortress within the Ancient City of Damascus that was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1979. It is located at the northwest corner of the old, walled medina with the Barada River just to the north. A Seljuk fortress was first built on the site in 1076 by the Turkman warlord Atsiz bin Uvak and finished by his successor Tutush I. In 1202, responding to the destructive power of the counterweight trebuchet, the Ayyubid ruler Al-Adil I ordered the citadel demolished and rebuilt. Qala’a Dimashq as it exists today was constructed between 1203 and 1216, largely of carbonate rock and basalt. It is unusual for a fortress because it is built on the same level as the city, not on high ground. It is roughly rectangular in shape with 12 large towers and 3 gates. The Mongols captured Damascus in 1260, and dismantled much of the citadel after suppressing a revolt there. They were defeated the same year by the Mamluks who rebuilt and controlled the citadel until 1516 when the Ottomans defeated them. In the 17th century they began using it as barracks for the Janissaries. Throughout this time, repairs were required at various points due to attacks and earthquakes, though significant structural changes where not made. In the 19th century the Ottomans added barracks, munitions magazines and other structures inside the walls of the Qala’a Dimashq. Some of the materials were obtained from demolishing upper sections of the citadel. The moats around the walls were filled in and suqs established to serve the barracks. Suq Sarujiyya occupies the space between the river and the fortress walls to the north, while Suq al-Hamidiyya pushes right up against the wall in the south. In 1925 French soldiers shelled the old city from the citadel in response to the Great Syrian Revolt against the French Mandate of Syria. The citadel continued to serve as a barracks and prison until 1986. As of this writing, the structure is an archeological excavation site and training center of the Directorate-General of Antiquities and Museums. It is also undergoing restoration with plans to open it to the public. --Michael A. Toler, AKDC@MIT 2012 Sources: Degeorge, Gérard. David Radzinowicz, translator. Paris: Flammarion: 2004. Stierlin, Henri. Oriental treasures in the Mediterranean: from Damascus to Granada. Vercelli: White Star, 2005. <a href="http://www.eugad.eu/wiki/index.php/Syria_-_Preservation_and_Development_-_Citadel_-_Damascus" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Syria - Preservation and Development - Citadel – Damascus</a> [Accessed December 7, 2012] <a href="http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/global-issues/education-research/archaeology/archaeology-notebooks/ancient-east/syria-the-citadel-of-damascus/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Syria - The Citadel of Damascus</a>. France Diplomatie (website). [Accessed December 7, 2012] Weber, Stefan. Damascus Ottoman Modernity and Urban Transformation 1808-1918. Aarhus, Denmark: Aarhus Universitetsforlag, 2009.

Qal'a Dimashq

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IMG42460

France

Napoleon

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painting

Jacques-Louis_David_-_The_Emperor_Napoleon_in_His_Study_at_the_Tuileries_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg

Located next to the gate that also bears the saint's name, this is the oldest marabout in the old medina of Tetouan, once known as the city of Sidi Saidi. The earliest references to Sidi Saïdi date to the early 17th century, and some sources say the mosque was constructed in 1609, but an inscription on the current structure gives the date of 1721, during the reign of Pasha Ahmed Rifi. It is an active mosque and zawiyya.

Zawiyya Sidi Saidi

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Sidi Saidi Mosque

Recipient of the Aga Khan Award for Architecture in 2004. Jerusalem has an extraordinarily long and varied history, but the urban fabric of the old city is threatened by overcrowding, lack of maintenance and poor services. The Old City of Jerusalem Revitalization Programme aims to rehabilitate the city, to preserve its heritage and to create a better quality of life for its inhabitants. It is a comprehensive project aimed at every aspect of human life, with several components, including restoration, training, education and raising public awareness. All these components are tied together to achieve an integrated and enduring revitalization. The body of completed works to date includes over 160 projects, all undertaken in close collaboration with local institutions, international organizations and funding agencies. The urban fabric has suffered from neglect, inappropriate use and inadequate services, with many people living in dilapidated buildings in unsanitary conditions. To address these issues the Welfare Association -- a Geneva-based non-governmental organization established in 1983 to support Palestinians in all development areas -- set up a technical office in Jerusalem in 1995. The office is composed of professionals from different fields: architecture, engineering, planning, economics and history. Its main aim is to implement a comprehensive programme for the rehabilitation of the old city, comprising a number of complementary components: a revitalization plan; emergency restoration; total restoration; training in conservation; a community outreach programme; and an information centre. The Old City Revitalization Plan forms the basis of the programme's work. A broad survey was carried out to identify the buildings most in danger and make proposals for their rehabilitation. The aim is not the immediate restoration of a contiguous quarter but interventions throughout the old city. Many of the projects are houses -- either single buildings of two or three storeys housing one or two families, or traditional residential complexes (hosh) of several units surrounding a courtyard and housing up to ten families. The programme also focuses on major public or religious buildings -- mosques, churches, madrasas (schools) and hostels -- some of which retain their original function, while others are adapted to a new use. Buildings are selected either for emergency or total restoration. Emergency restoration is normally a quick and limited intervention to solve particularly urgent problems that pose immediate health or safety risks, such as structural instability or water leakage. The duration of the projects varies from about three months for a small house to many years for non-residential projects; work on buildings of historic and architectural value is carried out slowly and sensitively and decisions are made with great care. Dar al Aytam is one such example, and this historical orphanage, comprising five monumental buildings from the Mamluk and Ottoman periods, including a soup kitchen and bakery established by the wife of Sultan Süleyman, is being upgraded incrementally as an educational institution. The other areas of the programme complement the restoration work to ensure the sustainability of the improvements. Training for architects, engineers, contractors and craftspeople is provided through short courses, internships and fellowships to study abroad. A community outreach programme encourages public awareness and participation in the rehabilitation process and organizes publications, meetings, workshops and lectures for schools, religious organizations, residents and users. Further components of the programme are also proposed: an information centre and a data bank of conservation professionals and organizations, and the Jerusalem Institute for the Preservation of Architectural Heritage in Palestine. By the end of 2003, eighty-two residential projects and twenty-six public and fifty-five commercial buildings had been restored through the programme, providing decent living conditions for residents, creating new spaces for the community and ensuring the preservation of the rich historic fabric of the old city. Jury Citation:"The programme has received an Award for its comprehensive approach towards sustaining the life of a community in its natural setting -- a life threatened by the deterioration of its physical, social and economic conditions.&nbsp;The project is successful in addressing several issues, including the restoration and rehabilitation of housing, as well as the adaptive reuse of historic buildings and monuments for new functions. The programme is notable for the training it provides in conservation for architects, engineers, contractors and craftspeople, and for the establishment of an information centre and a database for the old city, including documentation, surveys, research and studies. Finally, the project has created a community outreach programme to raise public awareness of the value of historic buildings and to encourage public participation in the process of rehabilitation and restoration.&nbsp;This effort is conducted under severe constraints, restoring the old city as a living, vibrant and beautiful environment. The process is meticulously conducted by a team of professionals motivated by their love of the place and its people. This is a project about dignity and self-esteem." Source: Aga Khan Trust for Culture

Old City of Jerusalem Revitalisation Programme

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IAA0325

Jordan

Constructed in the late 1950s, the first floor contains shops, with the mosque on the 2nd floor.

Safadi Mosque

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Jordan. Rainbow Street-Amman. Partial view of minaret.

Pakistan

Completed in 2023, the design of the Islamabad High Court was chosen through a design competition in 2013. In the words of the architect, the design explores the&nbsp;"inherent and timeless relationship between light and architecture" and the "connection between light and justice" by creating a building that would be "a container of light effects". <blockquote>The Judges’ entrance in the building is marked by a grand concrete and marble staircase. A central opening permits the lobby to be infused with the focused and powerful light quality. Such an atmosphere serves as a constant reminder of the universal justice of God.</blockquote><blockquote> </blockquote><blockquote>The High court is imagined as the most important volume in the scheme – an ovular intervention. As the public walks through the Garden of Justice, the experience the high Court ahead of them – a screened constitution wall within which a dome structure stands tall. Inside, a circulation pathway is marked between the curved walls of the high court and the light filtering through the constitution screen washes the corridor with the very text that informs the judicial process.</blockquote> Source: “Islamabad High Court,” The Architects Studio Tariq Hasan, accessed February 8, 2026, https://www.studiotariqhasan.com/competition/islamabad-high-court. Archived at: <a href="https://perma.cc/XW62-9Q8P" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">https://perma.cc/XW62-9Q8P</a>.

Islamabad High Court

A public square in the Dar Baroud neighborhood named for the mausoleum and mosque located on the southern side of the square.

Place Sidi Ali Ben Daoud

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Afghanistan

The madrasa was built during the reign of <a href="https://www.archnet.org/authorities/11897" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Sultan Husayn Bayqar</a>a (1469-1506) and contains his tomb. It and most of the other Timurid structures in the Musalla Complex were largely destroyed in 1885 by British-backed Afghan forces in fighting with Russian forces over control of the border. The ruins sustained additional damage in the earthquakes of 1931 and 1951.

Madrasa of Husain Baiqara

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Distant view. Husain Baiqara Madrasa. Minaret. Gawhar Shad Complex. Minarets. Herat. Afghanistan.

India

1959-62 Survey Located approximately 1.2 km northwest of Munīrkā village. Grid ref. E-10This graveyard is built on a plinth. There is just a small wall mosque with one miḥrāb in the west. Period III.IOC: VII-37&nbsp; ムニールカー部落の北西約1.2キロメートルにある。附図.E-10この墓地は,基壇の上にあり,西の部分に,一つのミフラーブをもつ小さな礼拝壁をそなえているのみである。第Ⅲ期。東研.Ⅶ-37 2015-18 Survey No remains of this structure could be found in the 2015 and 2018 surveys. [現状]2015・18年の調査では確認することができなかった。 [壁モスク]1959-62年の3枚の写真が残るのみで、低い基壇があり、西壁両端に円形断面塔型(基壇の位置に頂部飾をまわす)を配し、中央ミフラーブがある。ミフラーブ南面をスタッコ仕上で、1ミフラーブであったと思われる。 (Paragraph 2nd from the 2015-18 Survey is translated using Google Translate) [Wall mosque] Only three photographs from 1959-62 remain, and it has a low base, circular cross-section towers (with the top ornament around the base) on both ends of the west wall, and a central mihrab. The south side of the mihrab is finished in stucco, and it is thought to have been a single mihrab. Map Reference: Grid ref. E-10IOC Reference: G27, VII-37&nbsp;ASI Reference:&nbsp;Archived IOC Site Record: <a href="https://perma.cc/8EZZ-RXG5" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">https://perma.cc/8EZZ-RXG5</a>&nbsp; Mission Credit Line: Mission for Indian History and Archaeology, University of Tokyo, in 1959-60, 1961-62: the Resurvey of the Delhi Monuments, Research and Information Center for Asian Studies, Institute for Advanced Studies on Asia, University of Tokyo in 2015-18.

1 Mihrab Graveyard at Vasant Vihar (Mission for Indian History and Archaeology)

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Renovation and adaptive re-use of an old estate with the walls of a 19th century agricultural settlement, with the aim of promoting local development through tourism and the revival of traditional craftsmanship. It comprises a restaurant, numerous shops, and a crafts centre. While the vaulted structures of the original buildings were preserved, new additions and extensions have also been constructed in local stone with rough plastering. Source: Aga Khan Trust for Culture

Kan Zaman Tourist Village

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IAA7336

Bosnia and Herzegovina

The Ferhad Pasha Mosque Complex in Banja-Luka was blown up during Bosnia's inter-ethnic war from 1992 to 1995, on May 7, 1993 in the early morning hours. After destroying the buildings on the site, Serbian nationalists bulldozed and removed the debris of the destruction. Today, the outline of the mosque's foundation in an empty grass lot is the only proof of its former presence. Built in the late sixteenth century, the mosque complex included a madrasa (medrese), a Quranic school (mekteb), a dar al-hadith (darülhadis), a bathhouse (hamam), a fountain (çesme), clocktower (saat kulesi or sahat kula), three tombs (türbe) and a cemetery. A caravanserai (kervansaray) and a market (bedesten or bezistan) were also built at the same time to bring income to support the mosque and its institutions. These were all constructed as part of Sokollu Ferhad Pasha's waqf, or religious foundation, in Sarajevo. He also commissioned an aqueduct, a bridge and a palace in the city. An inscription over the main entrance of the mosque dated construction to 1579 (987 A.H.), which corresponds to Ferhad Pasha's rule as the district governor (sancakbey) of Bosnia before he became the provincial governor (beylerbeyi). By the time of its demolition in 1993, the complex included only the mosque, the three tombs, the fountain, the clock tower, the cemetery and a house for the imam. The Ferhad Pasha Mosque featured an elaborate multi-domed roof system over a brightly lit central prayer hall, flanked by vaulted galleries to the east and west and with a semi-domed qibla iwan projecting to the south. Fenestration on the mosque included two tiers of windows on the main structure, with fourteen windows on the large central dome and four on the semi-dome of the qibla iwan. A third tier of three windows sat above the portico and above the qibla iwan. Inside, the windows had colored glass in plaster frames, some decorated with gold. Spanning 6.58 meters in diameter, the inner surface of the central dome was decorated with Quranic inscriptions of the Sura Al-Fatiha and painted arabesques. The qibla dome had Quranic inscriptions and paintings as well, with the names of God decorating the pendentives. The minbar was made entirely of marble and the painted mihrab niche had seven tiers of muqarnas at its crown. A three-bay portico preceded the sanctuary, covered by three small domes carried on four marble columns and arches. The center dome over the entrance was slightly elevated. The two central columns featured muqarnas capitals while the outer two had diamond-cut capitals. Adjoining the mosque at its northwest corner, the octagonal shaft of the minaret rose into a single muqarnas balcony and a conical cap. Inscriptive plaques decorated each face of the minaret base. The three domed tombs at the mosque complex were each octagonal in plan. These tombs housed the graves of Ferhad Pasha and his sons, his extended family, and two of his close assistants. A U.K.-based trust called The Soul of Europe, together with the Swedish foundation Cultural Heritage without Borders, planned the reconstruction of the Ferhadija Mosque. Although the local Bosnian Serb authorities have tried to thwart their efforts. Reconstruction began in 2007, and the mosque reopened in 2016.<div> Sources: Ayverdi, Ekrem Hakki, and I. Aydin Yüksel. Avrupa'da Osmanli mimârî eserleri, 496, 549-612. Istanbul: Istanbul Fetih Cemiyeti, 1981.</div><div> </div><div>Borger, Julian. "Banja Luka Mosque Rises from Rubble, 23 Years after It Was Destroyed." The Guardian. May 06, 2016. Accessed May 06, 2016.&nbsp;<a href="http://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/may/06/banja-luka-mosque-bosnia-herzegovina-serbia-reopens-reconstruction" target="_blank" data-bypass="true">http://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/may/06/banja-luka-mosque-bosnia-herzegovina-serbia-reopens-reconstruction</a>. </div><div> </div><div>Haverford College. "The Destruction of the Ferhadija Mosque". Accessed August 27, 2004; inaccessible October 7, 2010. <a href="http://www.haverford.edu/relg/sells/banjaluka/ferhadija.html" target="_blank">http://www.haverford.edu/relg/sells/banjaluka/ferhadija.html</a> Haverford College. "Sites of Worship Deliberately Destroyed by Serb Religious Nationalists in Banja Luka". Accessed August 27, 2004; inaccessible October 7, 2010. <a href="http://www.haverford.edu/relg/sells/banjaluka/banjaluka.html" target="_blank">http://www.haverford.edu/relg/sells/banjaluka/banjaluka.html</a> Mostar, the Balkans, and Europe. "The Ferhadija Mosque in Banja Luka". Accessed August 27, 2004; inaccessible October 7, 2010. <a href="http://users.tyenet.com/kozlich/ferhad.htm" target="_blank">http://users.tyenet.com/kozlich/ferhad.htm</a> Ravlic, Aleksandar Aco. Banjalucka Ferhadija: ljepotica koju su ubili. Rijeka: AARiS, 1996.</div><div> </div><div>Riedlmayer, Andras. "Banja Luka's Ferhadija Mosque Rises Again." Bosnian Institute News:. May 02, 2008. Accessed May 06, 2016.&nbsp;<a href="http://www.bosnia.org.uk/news/news_body.cfm?newsid=2373" target="_blank" data-bypass="true">http://www.bosnia.org.uk/news/news_body.cfm?newsid=2373</a>. Soul of Europe. Accessed August 27, 2004. <a href="http://www.soulofeurope.org/" target="_blank">http://www.soulofeurope.org/</a></div>

Ferhat-pasina Dzamija

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ITB0094

The “Shash Darak” or “Askari Mosque” is a significant historical mosque located in Kabul, the capital of Afghanistan. Situated in the second district of Kabul city, this mosque holds cultural and historical importance, serving as a place of worship and prayer for residents of the community. The reconstruction of the Shash Darak Mosque was initiated by the Aga Khan Cultural Services - Afghanistan on August 8, 2022, and entailed the installation of fencing around the mosque area, covering 104 square meters. This measure aimed to prevent unauthorized access to the site during project activities. This was followed by the cleaning of the mosque’s courtyard, covering an area of 3080 square meters, from waste and accumulated debris. Restoration works included the repair of the iron-sheet roof of the mosque. In total 160 square meters of iron sheet was renovated. Moreover, flooring works were carried out on sections of the stairs leading to the 2nd floor of the mosque, brick flooring for both 1st and 2nd floors of the mosque were carried out. Pointing of all brick walls and stone foundation of the complex was completed. Skilled workers removed existing plaster from both the interior and exterior walls (covering 200 square meters) and new plaster was applied in its place. Wooden works included the cleaning and repair of existing historic windows and doors. Restoration works were concluded by plastering of the compound’s surrounding walls. In March 2023, the site was handed over to the Ministry of Information and Culture and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs as the custodian of the site.

Shash Darak Mosque Restoration

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Israel

Situated on the southern slopes of&nbsp;Mount Hermon, about 800 m (2600 feet) above sea level, overlooking the&nbsp;Golan Heights, this Ayyubid fortress was built to guard the road to Damascus. Because of its strategic location, earlier fortresses had existed on the site, possibly as early as 332 BCE, but the remains that exist on the site today are of the structure built by the Ayyubids and expanded by the Mamluks. The site was abandoned in the 16th c.

Qal'at Nimrud

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The Great Mosque of Seville was begun in 1172 during the rule of the Almohad caliph Abu Ya'qub Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Mu'min (1163-1184). The mosque was constructed of brick and plaster, and was rectangular in plan. Buttressed and crenelated walls enclosed the prayer hall and the rectangular arcaded Court of the Oranges, whose main entrance was known as the Puerta del Perdon. The minaret, which is known as the Giralda after the word for the 
weathervane placed on its summit, was built in 1184. Each façade of the
 minaret, which is constructed of brick and stone, is ornamented with 
interlacing arches supported on columns enframed within rectangular 
panels. The panels frame a central vertical grouping of polylobed 
arched windows, and the composition was crowned by an arcade of 
interlacing polylobed arches. The belltower and its supporting base are
 additions from the 16th century Following the Christian conquest of Seville in 1248 the mosque was consecrated for use as the cathedral of Santa Maria de la Sede. Beginning in the early 15th century the mosque was mostly destroyed to make way for a new Gothic cathedral. The plan of the cathedral closely follows the former footprint of the mosque, making it one of the largest churches in the world. The Giralda, the Court of the Oranges, and the Gate of Pardon were integrated into the new composition of the new Gothic cathedral which was completed in the sixteenth century. Sources: Casamar Perez, Manuel. 1992. "The Almoravids and Almohads: An Introduction." al-Andalus: the art of Islamic Spain. New York: MMA, 75-83. Marcais, Georges. 1955. L'architecture musulmane d'occident : Tunisie, Algerie, Maroc, Espagne et Sicile. Paris : Arts et metiers graphiques, 206. Rodríguez Estévez, Juan Clemente. 1998. El alminar de Isbiliya : la Giralda en sus orígenes, 1184-1198. Sevilla : Ayuntamiento de Sevilla, Área de Cultura.

Mezquita de Sevilla

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Seville. Cathedral. View from the Torre del Oro

Mexico

Franciscan Mission in Huejotzingo

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